Training horses so that they are truly prepared for their intended discipline is no easy task. Rose and Evens (1990) went so far as to describe training horses as both an art and a science. However, the amount of scientific research available to us which is specifically focused on equine training isn't exactly overwhelming. The expensive nature of carrying out such research has been suggested as a reason for its scarcity (Casterjon-Riber et al, 2017). So, in its absence, what do we have to help us plan our training?
A good place to start when considering any new training plan is to decide on your aims; what do you want the plan to help you to achieve? Although we may train for different disciplines and at many different levels with our horses, we will all share some common goals. For example, we all want our horses to remain fit and healthy whilst performing to their potential. Therefore, we all need our horses to be ‘fit for purpose,' and this will mean different things depending on your chosen equestrian pastimes or competitive discipline. To achieve this 'fitness,' a number of things need to be taken into consideration, such as strength, speed, stamina and flexibility. Co-ordination, balance and agility also play a role.
Your horse as an individual
You will be more likely to achieve your goals if you ensure that your training program is individualised to your horse and specific to the discipline in which you want to take part. One of the most important objectives of a training program is to minimize the risk of injury. Although we will all share this objective, the risk of injury to each horse will be different depending on their history and the demands of their discipline. These factors need to be considered when planning training. Similarly, the training objective of improving and maintaining performance will be very much dependent on previous training, current level of performance and natural ability. Another important objective of training is to maintain your horse’s willingness and enthusiasm for their exercise and this too will be influenced by their individual character and attitude towards their work. Once you have started to think about these individual aspects of your horse’s training program, you can begin to consider them alongside scientific knowledge.
Other things to consider when tailoring training programs to your horse is their age, conformation and previous training. Their age will impact their body's ability to adapt to training and the speed at which it can adapt. Younger horses may not be fully developed and still might be adjusting to growth spurts, which impact their balance through altering their centre of gravity. Older horse's bodies will take longer to adapt and may also have to compensate for natural degeneration which comes with age. They might feel a bit more restricted at the start of training sessions and therefore plans will need to include additional warm up time or days for lower impact and stretching work. Conformation is important because some conformational defects can mean that extra load will be applied to specific structures. These structures may then require extra conditioning and strengthening work to ensure that are strong enough to provide the required support. This is the same for structures which are required to take extra load due to an injury of another area. Compensations may also need more frequent management through physiotherapy to ensure that tissues which are working hard are kept as healthy as possible.
Previous training needs to be taken into consideration because this will either help or hinder your horse's ability to train for their current discipline. If the horse has trained for this discipline before, they will have previously adapted specific muscles they require and will have an element of muscle memory (as well as mental experience). Even if they have had some time out, muscles which have previously been conditioned in a certain way, should take less time to strengthen than those that haven't. This doesn't mean that elements should be omitted from the training program but does mean that the horse should find elements easier. If your horse has previously training for a different discipline, they may find training a little harder as they have different muscle memories to over come and may have their strength in areas which are not as specific to their new sport.
You must also be aware of any previous injuries your horse might have sustained. Even though they may be fully recovered, the area may always be an area of weakness that needs that little bit more management. Your horse may also continue to load another area to compensate due to muscle memory. These are things which your training program might need to be adapted for or include management of, to prevent possible reinjury.
When thinking about your horse as an individual, don't forget to think about how you, as their rider, will impact their training. What is your current level of fitness and how much time can you realistically devote to training? Will there be other resources which you will need? Might the weather impact your program and if so, how? What will this impact in the long term and might you have to alter your original goal? Your end goal will be individual to you and your horse, and will massively influence your training plan as it will dictate on how quickly you need to progress. For example, someone training a young horse in a relaxed way with the ‘let’s see how far we get this season’ attitude is very different to someone training a young horse for age classes. You might have to be willing to change your goal if early stages of training are interrupted.
Musculoskeletal adaptations to training
Injury occurs when the load applied to a structure is too great- the structure cannot maintain the load and tissue damage occurs. To enable structures to increase their capacity to sustain greater loads, they need to be able to adapt to increase their strength. Soft tissues, such as muscles, adapt more quickly than harder tissues like bones, tendons and ligaments, which take longer. The timescale of adaptation for all of these tissues need to be taken into consideration if injury is to be avoided- even if muscles are ready to take a greater load the other tissues may not.
Muscles
Muscles can adapt to training in a number of ways:
Muscle fibres which make up the muscle can increase in size. This is called hypertrophy.
The number of muscle fibres within a muscle can increase. This is called hyperplasia.
Muscle fibres can remodel. This means that their structural characteristics are altered through the training. This is explained in greater detail below.
For horses, training usually results in an increase in muscle mass, which is associated with hypertrophy (increase in fibre size) rather than hyperplasia (increase in fibre number). However, there are some breeds, such as thoroughbreds, where hypoplasia does take place. As well as changes to muscle fibre size and number, training also results in changes to fibre type.
A horse’s muscles are made up of ‘slow twitch’ fibres and ‘fast twitch' fibres. 'Slow twitch' fibres use aerobic respiration (which means they rely on oxygen) to create energy. Oxygen is stored within these fibres to supply the muscle and enables it to continue working. Though these types of fibres take a little longer to contract, they take longer to tire and are therefore important when stamina is required.
‘Fast twitch’ fibres are anaerobic, which means they use glucose rather than oxygen to produce energy. Fast twitch fibres fall under two categories, ‘fast twitch type IIa’ and ‘fast twitch type IIb.’ Even though both types of fibres contract more quickly and are used for short bursts of energy, fast twitch type IIa can recover more quickly and do use some oxygen alongside glucose to produce energy. They also produce less lactic acid than the type IIb.
Muscles contain a mixture of both slow and fast twitch fibres; the ratio of fibres within each depends on the muscle’s function. Generally, slow twitch fibres are found in muscles which require stamina, such as those used for posture, while fast twitch are found in those required for quick movements. For example, the eyes muscles, which enable blinking, contain up to 85% fast twitch fibres. Evidence informs us that, with training, the ratio between fast twitch type IIa fibres and fast twitch type IIb fibres within a muscle can be altered, so that the number of fast twitch type IIa increases, and fast twitch type IIb decreases. This tells us that training leads to improvements in stamina and recovery time.
Bones, tendons and ligaments
Bone density in genetically determined. However, adaptations can be made through applying increased loads. In basic terms, bone strength increases when loads are applied and decreases if loading ceases. Increase in load needs to be managed and progressive to ensure that it is not too much for the tissue at its stage in training (as this will result in injury). Similar occurrences are also seen in tendons and ligaments. In human sports science, evidence informs us that strength training, which applies greater loads onto the musculoskeletal system, results in greater adaptations, i.e. bone strength increases more through this type of exercise. Although similar studies are not available in horses, we can predict that strength training will achieve a similar outcome.
Planning Your Training
Prevention of injury- of course, no horse owner or trainer wants their training regime to result in injury to their horse. So how can it be avoided? First of all, think about what the science tells us. The exercises we use as part of training lead to fatigue and induces mild damage to cells. Once cells are mildly damaged in this way, adaptation begins; cells work to over come the damage and in this process strengthen to be able to withstand a greater load. This process is called 'overreaching’ and needs to happen if training is to be effective – the training needs to put some strain onto the tissues for the adaptation to take place. However, if too little time is given for recovery between sessions, the adaptation will not be adequate and ‘overtraining’ will occur and this can lead to injury.
Overtraining occurs when there is a reduction in performance despite continued training at either the same or an increased level of intensity. If you notice your horse suddenly has a poor appetite but usually eats well, is loosing weight, showing some behavioural changes or becomes reluctant to exercise, it might be due to overtraining. Even if you only see one or two of these signs, it is important to take a step back and reevaluate your training program. Are sessions too intense or is recovery time between sessions too short? There needs to be the correct balance between training stress and recovery.
Of course, there is the other end of the spectrum; detraining. This occurs when the load of training is too light. Studies have been carried out to investigate the time it takes for detraining of previously trained muscles to occur, if training is withdrawn. Although there were slight differences between research outcomes, depending on the breed, discipline and fitness of the horses, a general consensus is that muscles can maintain a decent level of fitness for 5-6 weeks after training has been withdrawn. Although some were able to last a little longer, all began to see a reduction in muscle fitness within a 12 week period. When detraining occurs, fibre size decreases and the muscles ability to transform fuel to energy is reduced.
To limit the signs of both over and undertraining you need to monitor your horse carefully. Rest periods between training sessions need to be sufficient to enable adaptation to take place and increase in training intensity needs to be progressive. If you notice signs such as fatigue or swelling in the horse’s legs the day after a training day, it might be a good idea to give a rest day or reduce the training planned to provide time for recovery and restrengthening. There are other things you can monitor during training sessions too, to determine whether or not intensity and progression is appropriate. Make a note of your horse’s breathing and heart rate throughout the session and at the end- how long does it take to return to normal? Are they sweating more than you would expect? Monitoring these signs can help to build a bigger picture of whether your training program is on track and is appropriate for your horse.
Progressing in your training
When the time comes to progress in your training, three important things to think about are training intensity, session duration and frequency. For a young horse or early in the season, you might begin with a low intensity conditioning program and initially progress by increasing the duration of the sessions. Once you have successfully increased the duration of training sessions, you can begin to consider increasing the intensity of the exercises included. At first, it is a good idea to reduce the length of the session as the intensity begins to increase before building back up to previous session lengths. Frequency can relate to the number of times you carry out an exercise within a session, carrying it out infrequently in the beginning and then increasing as it becomes easier, or the frequency of training sessions within a week. However, not all of these sessions need to be at a high intensity; by including sessions that are of a low intensity will help ensure that recovery and adaptation time is adequate.
If you are training your horse for competition, it needs to regularly take part in the type of activity that it will perform during the competition. This needs to be at an intensity which will induce the required adaptations to tissues so that performance during competition reaches its potential. Therefore, strength training needs to include activities which induce the same range and speed of joint motion required in the sport. For example, show jumpers need to carry out some strength training exercises which include activities with the same motion pattern as gymnastic jumping. This type of specific training will result in musculoskeletal adaptations being made in a way that prepares the horse for competition. This needs to be done gradually so that stress on the limbs is progressively increased without causing injury- think of tiny steps of over loading which the tissues can adapt to meet.
Types of Training
There are a number of different types of training which you can include in your training program. Some will be more appropriate for your sport, your horse and your long term goals.
Cross training
This refers to using exercises in training which are not sport specific. Horses which are required to sprint may also carry out some endurance work. This can help them to become more effective in converting energy in an aerobic way rather than in a anaerobic way, which is desirable as less lactic acid will be produced. However, horses who compete in endurance, or those who compete over longer distances, might want to avoid cross training which involves training for power. This is because the muscle fibre recruitment required for short bursts of power relies on the faster twitch muscles and therefore anaerobic respiration, which isn’t something endurance animals want to promote.
Strength Training
For the purposes of this post, we will take strength to mean the ability to exert a force. In most sports, this often needs to be done at speed. Therefore, we can take strength to be the force that a muscle can exert at speed. To enable this to happen, the muscle needs to be able to contract. There are different types of muscle contractions:
· Isometric contraction – here tension is generated within the muscle fibres without the length of the muscle changing. It might be that bony attachments prevent this or that equal forces are being applied to the muscle, preventing either shortening or lengthening taking place. For example, think of the muscles on the horse’s back which hold the rider.
· Concentric contraction- here the tension in the muscle is greater than the load being applied, meaning the fibres shorten as they contract. The ends of the muscle move closer together to move the skeleton. An example can be seen in the horse lifting a limb. The muscle is attached to specific parts of the skeleton and when the muscle contracts, shortening the muscle fibres, the bones are moved.
· Eccentric contraction- this describes a muscles which is lengthening while under load. The muscle acts to decelerate the joint at the end of a movement or control the repositioning of a load. For humans, this can happen when you try to move an object which is too heavy to lift. Another example can be walking down hill, when your muscles are resisting gravity. In horses, a good example can be when landing after a jump. Muscles are not only working against gravity, they are also acting to slow and control the movement for landing.
· Plyometric exercise- this describes a stretching and shortening cycle. The muscle is lengthened through eccentric contraction then followed by an immediate concentric contraction, which reverses the lengthening effect. Gymnastic jumping exercises are an example of this. It also explains why horses find cantering uphill easier than walking; the stretched muscle will have stored elastic energy which helps them to generate power making it easier to move at speed.
Strength training involves both eccentric and concentric contractions to increase muscular fibre strength, which in turn strengthens the muscle as a whole, making it more powerful to carry out its function. However, it is important to note that there is a greater risk of exercise-induced muscle damage during lengthening contractions if the muscles fibres are lengthened too far i.e. too much strain is applied.
Horses cannot be trained to lift weights and therefore other types of exercises need to be used to load specific muscle groups in an appropriate way to build strength. The number of repetitions completed during strength training exercises needs to be carefully considered as this type of training should not be carried out to the point of exhaustion because of the risk of injury. Rest periods should be provided between sets as well as between training sessions. Decide on the number of repetitions you are going to carry out with a set (group of repetitions performed continually), and the number of sets you are to complete. The greater the intensity of the exercise (e.g. the higher the jump), the less repetitions should be performed within a set.
Hill work
Gradients are a key part of strength training for horses. The force of gravity effectively pulls you in the direction of the bottom of the hill. For horses, this results in an increase in load to the hind limbs on an incline (weight transferred backwards) and the forelimbs on a decline (weight transferred forwards). Though humans might find it easier to run downhill, horses do not; their forelimbs have to stabilise their bodies and therefore, horses have been recorded to run their fastest on level ground (Self et al, 2012). However, encouraging horses to train at their fastest gallop too regularly can induce injury to anatomical structures which are put under more strain when running at greater speeds. Instead, studies have shown that the effect of running up hill at a slower speed (canter) has the same training results as running faster on the flat (Eto et al, 2006).
Stamina, balance and core strength are all also improved with hill work. As the horse climbs the hill, his own body weight, plus that of the saddle and rider, create resistance, meaning musculature of the hindlimb, forearm and shoulders need to work harder, which in time will help to develop muscle strength in theses areas. However, there are differences between the gaits which is important; at the walk and trot, hindlimbs work independently of each other, meaning that the muscles of each hindlimb are developed independently. If the horse is at canter or gallop, the horse propels itself forwards by pushing off with both hindlimbs at the same time. This is something to be aware of, especially in horses who have had previous back or pelvic injuries, as using the hindlimbs as one unit puts more strain on the muscles of the back and pelvis.
Travelling down hill strengthens the pectoral, shoulder and forearm muscles (as the forelimbs take the additional load and stabilise), while the quadriceps are engaged in the hindlimbs to act as a break. Although eventers and endurance horses will need to negotiate declines at trot and canter during competition and will therefore need to be prepared for this in their training, the frequency of this should be limited due to the increased amount of stress it creates on joints. As an alternative, training across a slope can be beneficial, especially if horses are asymmetrical as it encourages equal use of hindlimbs.
When introducing gradients to your training program, as with all new exercise, it is recommended to introduce them gradually. Begin with less reps on a gentle slope and then gradually increase the intensity by initially increasing the numbers of reps and then the gradient of the incline (possibly reducing reps initially when the incline is first increased).
Steps
A possible progression from travelling up and down a gradient is travelling up and down steps. This does not mean a full flight of stairs- just one step to begin with is ample. This might increase to two or three in time and if required. Uphill steps require the horse to complete the movement in a concentric muscle contraction (fibres shorten), whereas down hill steps require the movement to end with an eccentric contraction (lengthening) This contradicts other cycles of movement, for example jumping, which ends with an eccentric-concentric contraction. Therefore, care needs to be taken to avoid injury by introducing gradually and not carrying out too many repetitions in one go.
Jumping steps uphill helps to develop power in the hindlimbs and jumping steps downhill emphasizes eccentric contraction in the forelimbs, which is good training for eventers, who will need to negotiate such obstacles out on course. The exercise can be developed further by asking the horse to jump down one step or drop then immediately up another as this will require the stretching and shortening cycle (polymetric).
Surface
Different types of surfaces provide different amounts of resistance. Surfaces which are deep provide greater resistance, meaner muscles such as the quadriceps, gluteals and pectorals have to work harder. Deeper sand, snow or grass which is spongy can provide this resistance, though time will need to be taken to condition the horse to the surface and prevent injury. If you come across muddy terrain during your hacks, this will provide substantial resistance and therefore should be only negotiated in walk to prevent injury. Water is also used to build strength through the resistance the water provides. To find out more about this type of training go to https://www.perfectgait.com/post/the-underwater-treadmill-in-canine-and-equine-rehabilitation-and-training .
Pole Work
Not only does pole work add variation to flat work, it can provide a good introduction to jumping for young horses. As the poles are on the ground, there is less likelihood of injury while the horse gets used to working around and over them. Walking or trotting over raised poles (see https://www.perfectgait.com/post/walk-poles-in-equine-training-and-rehabilitation and https://www.perfectgait.com/post/raised-trot-poles-in-equine-rehabilitation-and-training ) provide numerous training benefits, such as increasing limb joint flexion, improving hindlimb engagement and therefore, encouraging the horse to work the muscles of the back. Core strength is also targeted through the horse requiring to engage core muscles to enable them to balance while one limb is off the ground (this is increased in walk compared to trot due to the increased amount of time the limb is off the ground in walk and the requirement to lift and hold rather than rely on propulsion, which is achieved in the faster gait). Although pole work can be carried out under the saddle, it is also a good thing to do from the ground, providing the horse the chance to work the back muscles without the weight of a rider.
As well as trotting or walking over poles in the traditional way, there are many other ways that they can be used to target specific areas of the anatomy to condition and build strength. They can also be used to encourage lengthening of stride by altering the distance between the poles or by putting them on a circle, which encourages a lengthening of stride in trot. If you're look for some inspiration, have a scroll through the ideas on https://www.facebook.com/PerfectGaitVetPhysio/ or get in touch and I'd be happy to provide some suggestions.
Cavaletti
Cavaletti is a form of progression from pole work and consists of a number of low rails that are placed parallel to each other. The poles can be negotiated in walk, trot or canter and can again be used during ridden and ground work. Like with poles, the horse must raise their limbs higher (increasing engagement of the muscles which act to achieve limb joint flexion) and increase engagement of the hindlimbs, resulting in them correctly working over the back. As cavaletti are usually higher than raised poles (walk cavaletti 15-20cm/raised poles 10cm) limbs are raised higher and are therefore off the ground for longer, meaning that core musculature is engaged for longer period, providing a greater work out. This means that cavaletti would be a good progression from ground and then raised poles.
Jumping
Jumping exercises, sometimes referred to as 'gymnastic jumping', is usually only used by those wishing to improve their horse's ability to jump. The exercises selected, and the height and width they are positioned, will be different depending on horse, rider and point in training. It is a good idea to work with a trainer who will be able to guide you in what is appropriate for your horse. As well as improving strength through working the muscles through a concentric-eccentric cycle of contraction (flex to get over the fence and extend on landing), agility and confidence are increased.
Before embarking on these type of exercises, you need to ensure that your horse is confident to jump simple fences at appropriate heights for the level of training. That is where poles and cavaletti can be helpful in providing an introduction. Once this confidence is established and the gymnastic type exercises have started, you then need to ensure you carry out sufficient repetitions for adaptation to take place. Remember, progression and time for recovery needs to be built into this; it is not a good idea to carry out these types of exercises daily. However, carrying them out too infrequently will not result in the changes to muscle strength and stamina you require. One to two sessions a week, with planned progression built within and between the sessions should be sufficient. For example, start with simple exercises in the first session and slowly increase the complexity and intensity. During the following session, perhaps begin very simply again but progress a little bit quicker. Then, by the next session you might omit the initial very simple stage and go straight to the next stage in your program. Again, monitor your horse's response, providing extra days rest or conditioning in between if you suspect fatigue. Similarly, if they loose confidence, going back a stage might help them to regain it more quickly and will be less likely to result in injury if they are a bit tense.
If you are looking to improve collection through these types of exercises, small fences at bounce distances engage the stretch-shortening cycle. If you wish to train for power, grid work with initial lower fences, leading to a higher fence is a good option.
Planning your training
Strength training should begin prior to the start of your season, so that once you are out competing, your training is then focused on maintaining, rather than increasing, fitness. Again, there is little research into the required regularity of this type of training for horses and therefore, recommendations are taken from human sports science. Here advice tells us that initial training should begin at 2-3 days per week, increasing to 3-4 and then 4-5 days once fitness is developed. Within this, there should be a combination of different types of strength training exercises, hill work, conditioning and suppling exercises, spaced at appropriate intervals to provide adequate rest and avoid over training.
Prior to embarking on any training program, it isn't a bad idea to get your horse checked over by your vet physio or, if you have specific concerns, your vet. They will not only be able to advise you on the level of training to begin at, they will also be able to point out any specific weaknesses etc. that might require extra management in your plan- preparing in this way could prevent injuries later down the line.
References
Castejon-Riber. C., Riber. C., Rubio. M., Agüera. E. and Muñoz. A., (2017), Objectives, Principles, and Methods of Strength Training for Horses. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science.
Eto. D., Yamano. S., Hiraga. A. and Miyata. H., (2006), Recruitment Pattern of Muscle Fibre Type during flat and sloped treadmill running in thoroughbred horses. Equine Veterinary Journal.
Rose. RJ. and Evans. DL., (1990), Training Horses art or science? Equine Veterinary Journal.
Self. ZT., Spence. AG. and Wilson. AM., (1985), Speed and Incline During Thoroughbred Horse Racing; racehorse speed supports a metabolic power constraint to incline running but not to decline running. Journal Appl. Physiol.
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